A Comparative Study of Cultural Impact on Body Image by Cristina Ruiz

Culture significantly influences each individual’s perspective of the world, shaping their identity and impacting how they perceive themselves, including their personality and body image. This idea is referred to as ethnocentrism which as defined by Bizumic and Duckitt (2012), is conceptualized as a strong sense of ethnic group self-centeredness, which involves intergroup expressions of ethnic group preference, superiority, purity, and exploitativeness and intragroup expressions of ethnic group cohesion and devotion. It is further supported by the idea of ingroups (Turner, Brown, and Tajfel, 1979), which is a phenomenon of self comparison in which they state the tendency for individuals to compare themselves to members they consider to be in their ‘In-group’. The significant influence and reliance on the opinions of individuals within one’s culture contributes to varying perspectives on body image. Numerous studies have examined the influences of different cultures on various aspects of body perception. For instance, Rucker and Cash (1992) conducted a study comparing the body image of white and African American women. They discovered racial differences in different facets of body image and attributed them to the distinct beauty standards upheld by each culture. In this study, researchers will specifically explore the impact of cultural identification and cultural practices related to food and wellness on body image.

Another aspect that has been extensively studied is that of the correlation of cultural pressures and eating disorders. Hawthorne-Hoeppner (2000) conducted an empirical study that revealed a strong influence of culture and family on the development of eating disorders. Similar results were found linking culture to aspects of self-image in other empirical studies. Wardle et al. (1993) were concerned with body perceptions and weight concern among young Asian and Caucasian British women. Their research was motivated by previous research done by Brownell (1991) on American beauty societal pressures, as well as a research study done on the prevalence of eating disorders in certain countries conducted by Jones et al. (1980). This inspired them to continue researching the role of culture on body image and weight concern, focusing specifically on women. This study involved 274 Caucasian and Asian women from diverse classes, to minimize bias. Participants completed a questionnaire that assessed their eating habits, ideal physiques, and any exposure which may contribute to eating disorders through exposure to media or other platforms. An analysis of the data, correlating race with cultural identity, utilized measures such as viewing habits and perceptions of their bodies in relation to beauty standards. The results indicated that Asian women tended to experience less dissatisfaction compared to Caucasian women, suggesting cultural influences on attitudes toward weight. The researchers concluded that there are prevalent “cultural attitudes to fatness” across various cultures. This finding sheds light on the significant cultural differences in body image and perception issues, as observed between these two particular cultures. 

There were many other empirical studies performed which not only proved the impact of culture on body perception but on all aspects of life. In a study conducted by Hoersting and Jenkings (2011), they coined the term ‘cultural homelessness’. This term is a framework proposed by Vivero and Jenkins (1999) that describes individuals who feel a lack of cultural or ethnic group membership, emotional detachment of cultural group, and need for a cultural home. They stated that this can be associated with low self-esteem, seeing less perceived control over one’s life, and unmet needs for belonging and attachment. Their study involved 475 participants, who as children “had spent more than two years on one or more occasions in a country that is now the parent’s home.”, they used the term “suitcase children” to describe them. The participants took part in a series of online surveys. The first one collected general background information, the second one collected information regarding cross-cultural experiences (they referred to this survey as SLIM or self label identity measure). The last test they did is called Rosenberg self-esteem scale, which evaluated the strength of affirmation, belonging, and commitment to a self-labeled cross-cultural identity. Their findings stated that “Strength of affirmation, belonging, and commitment to cross-cultural identity, the emotional component of group membership, was related to both cultural homelessness and self esteem.” They also concluded that “those who experienced cultural homelessness but expressed greater commitment to any cross-cultural labor or identity tended to have higher self esteem.” (Hoerstring and Jenkins, 2011). The findings suggest that individuals who lack a strong cultural identification tend to have lower self esteem compared to those who have a significant attachment to one or more cultures. This research provides a deeper understanding of the cultural impact on individuals who are multicultural and highlights the need for future studies to explore the correlation between culture and self-esteem. 

This study aims to expand upon previous research by examining the influence of cultural significance and cultural emphasis on food and wellness on body image. The main objective is to investigate whether a strong cultural influence impacts individuals’ self-esteem. Two hypotheses will be tested in this study. The first hypothesis is: that individuals whose cultural background is a significant aspect of their identity will indicate an overall more positive perception of their body image than individuals whose cultural identity does not play a significant role in their identity. The second hypothesis states that individuals from cultures with a significant emphasis on food and wellness will indicate an overall more positive perception of their body image than individuals from cultures that do not place a significant emphasis on food and wellness.

Method

Sample 

This study involved the participation of 36 students from the University of California, Santa Barbara. The focus of the study was not centered on any specific age or gender group, rather, it aimed to examine various ethnicities. The selected ethnicities included Black/ African American, Eastern Asian/ Asian American (7 participants), Hispanic/ Latino (8 participants), Native American/ Indigenous American, Southern Asian/ Indian American, Middle Eastern/ Arab, White/ European American (15 participants), and More than one (6 participants). It is important to note that the sample used in this study was not representative, as participants were recruited through a voluntary sampling method. The survey was posted on gaucho-space, a platform accessible to all UCSB students, and students willingly elected to partake in the study.

Procedures 

Over the span of a week, participants voluntarily took part in this survey to take this survey after encountering it on gaucho-space. Prior to their involvement, participants who chose to take part in the self-administered survey were provided with information regarding the purpose of the study, as well as an estimated completion time of approximately five to seven minutes. The brief explanation clarified that the online survey aimed to explore college students’ perception of their body image and wellness habits, deliberately excluding a focus on ethnicities to minimize response bias. At the end of the week, the collected data was compiled to examine the relationship between cultural identification and body image, as well as the association between body image and cultural emphasis on food and wellness, utilizing a factorial design. By employing a survey methodology instead of an experimental approach, the study was able to reveal correlations among the three variables. 

Measures 

The survey began by presenting a range of question types, including nominal, open-ended, closed-ended, and interval/ratio questions. Given that the primary focus of the study revolved around participants’ ethnicity and cultural background, demographic questions were included, allowing participants to select multiple ethnicities from the list mentioned above. Subsequently, participants were asked a series of questions pertaining to the significance and sense of belonging associated with their chosen ethnicity. A total of fifteen questions were utilized, employing a Likert scale developed by Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R. K., Cooper, M. L., & Bouvrette, A. (2003), consisting of five points ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. 

In this study, there was one dependent variable, and two independent variables, with no control variables present. To operationalize the dependent variable, Body Image, a set of questions specifically explored the cultural influence on body image, such as “In general, my racial and ethnic identity is an important part of my self-image,”. The Likert scale was also employed to operationalize the independent variables. For the first Independent variable, Cultural Identification, specific questions were used, for instance “I have a strong sense of belonging to people with my racial and ethnic identity” or “My racial and ethnic identity is an important reflection of who I am”. Similarly, the same method was employed for the second Independent variable, Cultural Emphasis on Food and Wellness, with questions focusing more on wellness aspects, like “Does your culture prioritize physical fitness and physical health?” or “Do you feel food and cuisines play a significant role in your culture?”. Lastly, there were two overlapping questions that measured both the dependent variable and the first independent variable, such as “Overall, my racial and ethnic identity has very little to do with how I feel about myself” or “In general, my racial and ethnic identity is an important part of my self-image”. The utilization of a 1-5 scale allowed for a comprehensive range of responses, enabling the research study to draw conclusive findings from the provided data.

Appendix A provides further details on these questions. 

Results 

After analyzing the responses for each cultural background, the researchers conducted two factorial designs to test their hypotheses. The first design aimed to examine the correlation between cultural significance and a more positive body image. To calculate this, the researchers determined the mean difference between the dependent variable (body image) and the first independent variable (Cultural Identification). The second design focused on the correlation between the second independent variable (Cultural emphasis on food and wellness) and the dependent variable (Body Image). Here, the researchers calculated the mean difference between the dependent variable and the second independent variable. 

Upon analyzing the results, the researchers compare the marginal means for each culture (More on this on Appendix A). For the first factorial design, the results were as follows: Western European (mean score of 3.75), More than one culture (mean score of 1.5), and Eastern Asian and Hispanis cultures had similar average scores (1.75 and 2, respectively). In the second factorial design, the results were: More than one culture (mean score of 6), White/ Western European (mean score of 4.375), and Eastern Asian and Hispanic cultures had similar average scores (1.75 and 2, respectively). 

Discussion

This study investigated the impact of Cultural significance and cultural emphasis on food and wellness on body image. The results revealed that, on average, participants of White/ Western European descent, who identified their culture as having a significant influence on them, reported a more positive body image compared to participants from other cultures. These findings align with the first hypothesis, which predicted that a stronger cultural significance would be associated with a more positive body image. They also supported the concept of ‘cultural homelessness’ (Hoersting and Jenkings, 2011) which suggests that individuals with cross-cultural childhood experiences may experience challenges related to self-esteem and feelings of belonging. 

Based on the results of the first hypothesis, the researchers in this study expected that the White/ Western European participants, who demonstrated a strong cultural significance and body image, would also show a positive correlation between cultural emphasis on food and wellness and a positive body image. This expectation was supported by a study conducted by Hawthorne-Hoppner (2000), which found that culture and family strongly influenced eating behaviors. However, this study discovered that participants identifying with ‘more than one culture’ had a higher body image when their culture placed a strong emphasis on food and wellness. While the findings supported Hypothesis 1, they conflict with Hypothesis 2. 

One of the strengths of this study was the use of a self-administered survey, which was cost-effective and required minimal researcher intervention. The straightforward and short duration of the survey also made it easily accessible for participants. However, there were several limitations and weaknesses. The sample size was small and not representative, with the majority of participants identifying as white or Western European. There was no representation of other ethnicities, such as African American, South Asian and Middle Eastern, which comprised the validity and generalizability of the findings. To address these limitations, future research should strive for a larger and more diverse sample, encompassing equal participation from each ethnic group of interest. 

Despite the limitations in sample representation, the findings of this study contribute to the existing body of knowledge concerning the influence of cultural group identification and practices on individuals’ self-perception and body image. To enhance the credibility of future studies, revisions should focus on obtaining data from a broader range of racial and ethnic groups beyond the University of California, Santa Barbara population. Additionally, expanding the study’s reach to various platforms and offering more enticing incentives, such as monetary rewards, could attract a more diverse participant pool. By including a wider array of cultural groups, future research can gain a deeper understanding of the cultural influences on psychological processes, including self-image and perception. This knowledge can shed light on concepts like ‘cultural homelessness’ and contribute to the fields of mental health and psychological well-being. 

References

Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R. K., Cooper, M. L., & Bouvrette, A. (2003). Contingencies of self-worth in college students: theory and measurement. Journal of personality and social psychology, 85(5), 894.https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.894

Haworth‐Hoeppner, S. (2000). The critical shapes of body image: The role of culture and family in the production of eating disorders. Journal of marriage and family, 62(1), 212-227.  https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00212.x

Hoersting, R. C., & Jenkins, S. R. (2011). No place to call home: Cultural homelessness, self-esteem and cross-cultural identities. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 35(1), 17-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.11.005

Rabikowska, M. (2010). The ritualization of food, home and national identity among Polish migrants in London. Social Identities, 16(3), 377-398. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504630.2010.482432

Rucker III, C. E., & Cash, T. F. (1992). Body images, body‐size perceptions, and eating behaviors among African‐American and white college women. International journal of eating disorders, 12(3), 291-299. https://doi.org/10.1002/1098-108X(199211)12:3<291::AID-EAT2260120309>3.0.CO;2-A

Tiggemann, M., & Zaccardo, M. (2015). “Exercise to be fit, not skinny”: The effect of fitspiration imagery on women's body image. Body image, 15, 61-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.06.003

Wardle, J., Bindra, R., Fairclough, B., & Westcombe, A. (1993). Culture and body image: Body perception and weight concern in young Asian and Caucasian British women. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 3(3), 173-181.  https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2450030302

Tables and Graphs

*Key for graphs 1, 3, 5, 7, 9: Blue line represents ‘significant identification’. Red line indicates ‘not significant identification’. 

*Key for grapes 2, 4, 6, 8, 10: Blue line represents ‘significant emphasis’. Red line indicates ‘not significant emphasis’. 

Table 1. Factorial design test for H1.

Cultural Identification / Body Image 

	Significant Identification	Not Significant Identification	Mean Difference
Positive Body Image	16	6	11
Negative Body Image	14	10	7
Mean Difference	10	8

Graph 1. Test of interaction effect between variables in H1. 

Table 2. Factorial design test for H2.

Cultural Emphasis on Food and Wellness / Body Image  

	Significant Emphasis	Not Significant Emphasis	Mean differences
Positive Body Image	20	2	11
Negative Body Image	11	3	7
Mean Differences	15.5	2.5

Graph 2. Test of interaction effect between variables in H2. 

Tables 3.  Factorial design test for H1 for White and Western European participants.

Cultural Identification / Body Image 

	Significant Identification	Not Significant  Identification	Mean differences
Positive Body Image	2	3	2.5
Negative Body Image	4	6	5
Mean Differences	3	4.5	Marginal Mean: 3.75

Graph 3. Test of interaction effect between variables for H1 for White and Western European participants.

Tables 4.  Factorial design test for H2 for White and Western European participants.

Cultural Emphasis on Food and Wellness / Body Image  

	Significant Emphasis	Not Significant Emphasis	Mean differences
Positive Body Image	4	1	2.5
Negative Body Image	7	4	5.5
Mean Differences	7	2.5	Marginal Mean: 4.375

Graph 4. Test of interaction effect between variables for H2 for White and Western European participants.

Table 5.  Factorial design test for H1 for participants from more than one culture.

Cultural Identification / Body Image 

	Significant  Identification	Not Significant Identification	Mean differences
Positive Body Image	1	3	2
Negative Body Image	0	2	1
Mean Differences	0.5	2.5	Marginal Mean: 1.5

Graph 5. Test of interaction effect between variables for H1 for participants from more than one culture. 

Table 6.  Factorial design test for H2 for participants from more than one culture.

Cultural Emphasis on Food and Wellness / Body Image  

	Significant  Emphasis	Not Significant Emphasis	Mean Difference
Positive Body Image	3	1	2
Negative Body Image	2	0	1
Mean Difference	2.5	.5	Marginal Mean: 6

Graph 6. Test of interaction effect between variables for H2 for participants from more than one culture. 

Table 7.  Factorial design test for H1 for Eastern Asian and Asian American participants.

Cultural Identification / Body Image 

	Significant Identification	Not Significant Identification	Mean Difference
Positive Body Image	7	0	3.5
Negative Body Image	0	0	0
Mean Difference	3.5	0	Marginal Mean: 1.75

Graph 7. Test of interaction effect between variables for H1 for Eastern Asiian and Asian American participants.

Table 8.  Factorial design test for H2 for Eastern Asian and Asian American participants.

Cultural Emphasis on Food and Wellness / Body Image  

	Significant Emphasis	Not Significant  Emphasis	Mean Difference
Positive Body Image	7	0	3.5
Negative Body Image	0	0	0
Mean Difference	3.5	0	1.75

Graph 8. Test of interaction effect between variables for H2 for Eastern Asian and Asian American participants.

Table 9.  Factorial design test for H1 for Hispanic and Latino participants.

Cultural Identification / Body Image 

	Significant Identification	Not Significant Identification	Mean Difference
Positive Body Image	4	2	3
Negative Body Image	2	0	1
Mean Difference	3	1	Marginal Mean: 2

Graph 9. Test of interaction effect between variables for H2 Hispanic or Latino participants.

Table 10.  Factorial design test for H2 for Hispanic and Latino participants.

Cultural Emphasis on Food and Wellness / Body Image  

	Significant Identification	Not Significant Identification	Mean Difference
Positive Body Image	6	0	3
Negative Body Image	2	0	1
Mean Difference	4	0	Marginal Mean: 2

Graph 10. Test of interaction effect between variables for H2 Hispanic or Latino participants.

Appendix 

Figure 1. Screenshot of questions #2-5 of Google Form surveys taken by studies participants demonstrating the Likert scale modeled questions used. 

Figure 2. Screenshot of question #1 of survey where participants were asked to identify their racial or ethnic identity. Those who selected more than one race were placed into the ‘more than one culture’ group. There is evidence of poor representation in the sample by the skewed nature of the bar graph.